Ethics in Criminal Justice Administration Essay

No place is moral conduct more significant than the organization of criminal equity. Absence of moral conduct sabotages the motivation behind the criminal equity framework. The expense of deceptive conduct will be the ruin of the criminal equity framework and just by increasing a genuine comprehension of what moral conduct is and how to keep up it will the framework keep on prospering. While the moral standard people create during that time are significant; using basic reasoning abilities guaranteeing moral guidelines remain set up. Numerous individuals accept that great moral conduct is a piece of an individual’s cosmetics yet in actuality moral conduct is found out and along these lines not the equivalent for everybody. Moral and good conduct starts creating from the time people are youthful and keeps on creating and change during adulthood. Understand that the underlying moral qualities an individual picks up as a rule originate from the home condition and are exceptionally affected by the moral conduct showed by guardians and relatives. Should this life be affected by wrongdoing and brutality then this conduct could turn into the standard and this individual’s moral qualities and gauges would be outside of the cultural standard. As people develop into grown-ups beneficial encounters keep on affecting moral and good guidelines. Numerous individuals live by the presumption that while something might be unscrupulous it isn't unlawful so nobody minds however good and bad don't generally bargain in legalities. Because something isn't unlawful doesn't make it right. In the organization of criminal equity moral contemplations are the reason for the utilization of prudence, power, and fair treatment required to settle on sound good choices. The examination morals comprehends the outcomes of activities and the ethical standards utilized. In the organization of criminal equity morals must be a perpetual piece of the executives and strategy making identified with discipline. Morals are likewise a fundamental piece of dynamic with respect to restoration, discouragement, and condemning. People working in the field of criminal equity keep up power over others lives (Banks,â 2004). This force must not be messed with. These people must know about the intensity of the position and the moral principles required when completing those obligations. So in what manner can the framework guarantee that people keep up moral measures? Preparing is the response to guaranteeing moral guidelines. Most people are responsive to preparing and comprehend the need of keeping up moral guidelines. The expense of lawful charges, suit and harms from cases of moral infringement could cost millions and it appears to be easier to keep up preparing for staff than pay millions if claims. An ongoing increment in claims against officials for untrustworthy conduct just validates this perfect significantly more (Eastvedt, 2008). It is significant for experts in the criminal equity field to comprehend the moral system where people gain their methodology for dynamic. The main idea is optimism where it is accepted the ideal result might be gotten through utilizing the suitable activity. The issue for these people is picking the adjustment activity in a given circumstance. The subsequent idea is relativism. This idea is gotten from the perfect that while the ideal result is liked, everything is comparative with situation and along these lines unfortunate results are inescapable regardless of the activity taken. There are four ways to deal with moral dynamic and realizing these will help to character the directions of those whom you utilize. Situationists accept that everything is relative and base the activities assumed the evaluation of the circumstance. These people decide not to recognize the general good code or rules followed by society. Subjectivist likewise put stock in the family member and reject cultural codes anyway these people keep up close to home good standards utilized while evaluating circumstances. Absolutists follow vision accepting that the best result is accomplished by following the widespread good standards. Exceptionists follow a similar conviction as absolutists with the slight distinction. They accept that specific circumstances permit deviation from these convictions (Bailey, 2009). Another significant preparing module is basic reasoning. Basic reasoning aides individual’s reason directly from wrong to guarantee great dynamic aptitudes. Basic reasoning assists people with settling on target choices while examining data. At the center of basic reasoning are psychological abilities and full of feeling attitudes. Subjective abilities are utilized during translation, examination, assessment, induction, clarification, and self-guideline. Affectiveâ dispositions require and individual to be curious, keep up a worry for being very much educated, realize when to utilize basic reasoning, know about one’s own predisposition, and ability to rethink or reexamine when required. Settling on a moral choice doesn't happen in a flash. People for the most part have the opportunity to think about the activity and any other options. This is the place crimtial thinking has a perplexing impact. Basic reasoning permit the person to think about what to accept or what move to make (Meisel and Fearon, 2006). The Williams Institute and the APPA are cooperating to present the consistence based model and obligation based model into morals preparing. The Williams Institute keeps up a conviction that moral duty did not depend on rules and codes rather connections and obligation regarding ones activities. By giving individuals the instruments to settle on the correct choices, TWI accepts that people will settle on the correct choice. The initial step is to expel dread from the dynamic procedure and empower people to be answerable for the choice made (The Williams Institute, 2001). Morals preparing for people in the field of criminal equity requires a comprehension of people inside the field and the jobs held. Individual inside this field are investigated and decided on the choices made whether moral or dishonest. Caution is expected of all people in all regions inside the framework. Comprehension of the optional jobs of every individual is fundamental to seeing how unscrupulous issues can happen. Administrators have the ability to characterize what is viewed as illicit and culpable under the law. Cops have a lot of watchfulness during dynamic on captures, references and examinations. Investigators regularly face minimal measure of examination dependent on the confidence put on them maintaining the law. Investigators keep up prudence when documenting charges, downsizing charges, affecting officials, and capital punishment. Judges keep up circumspection over request deals, condemning, looking into the law, and rules of proof. People working in revisions have tact over probation, deciding proper conduct, oversight of detainees and parole. Every one of these people has an obligation regarding authorizing the law and securing the privileges of the constitution. Preparing for these people ought to incorporate diagnostic aptitudes and thinking, and the capacity to perceive the outcomes of activities. The five objectives that ought to be accomplished once the moral preparing is finished are staying alert and open to moral issues,â become actually mindful, create basic reasoning abilities, seeing how the framework frequently empowers intimidation, and the investigating singular sentiments (Drylie, J.). People must figure out how to maintain the rights and freedoms of the suspect, the interests of the network, and the law (Albanese, 2006). Morals in the organization of criminal equity go connected at the hip. People who work in the field of criminal equity must keep up moral uprightness to guarantee the law capacities as planned. As people develop and have their spot on the planet the moral and virtues from youth change dependent on life encounters. Knowing the moral structure that individuals use to characterize their moral standpoint assists heads with building up a strategy for working with these people. By giving preparing and instruction to people inside the criminal equity field society can guarantee those qualities are kept up inside the framework. References Albanese, J., 2006, Professional Ethics in Criminal Justice: Being Ethical When No One is Looking, recovered May 12, 2013 from: http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Professional+Ethics+in+Criminal+Justice%3A+Being+Ethical+When+No+One+is†¦-a0158093018†³>Professional Ethics in Criminal Justice: Being Ethical When No One is Looking. Strahlendorf, P., Professional Ethics, Ryerson University, School of Occupational and Public Health, Session No. 174, Retrieved May 12, 2013 from: http://www.bcsp.org/pdf/PresentationsArticles/714_1.pdf Banks, 2004, the Importance of Ethics in Criminal Justice, recovered May 12, 2013 from: http://www.sagepub.com/upm-information/4031_Banks_Chapter_1_Proof.pdf Drylie, J., Ethics in Criminal Justice, Week 1, CJ3750, Kean University, recovered May 12, 2013 from: http://www.kean.edu/~jdrylie/docs/Microsoft%20PowerPoint%20-%20Ethics%20Week%201.pdf Eastvedt, Steven R., 2008, Criminal equity morals a view from the top, recovered May 12, 2013 from: http://www.c orrections.com/news/article/20030 Meisel, S. I., and Fearon, D. S. (2006). â€Å"Choose the future wisely†: Supporting better morals through basic reasoning. Diary of Management Education, 30(1), 149-176. Recovered from http://search.proquest.com/docview/195719245?accountid=35812

Florida Bar Association Rules of Professional Conduct Essay Example

Florida Bar Association Rules of Professional Conduct Essay Example Florida Bar Association Rules of Professional Conduct Essay Florida Bar Association Rules of Professional Conduct Essay Rules of Professional Conduct (Chapter 4, Rules Regulating The Florida Bar) On This Page I. Issue II. Bar Position III. Foundation IV. Realities and Statistics [pic] I. Issue On January 1, 1987, the Code of Professional Responsibility stopped to oversee legal advisors in Florida. The Code was supplanted by the Rules of Professional Conduct, which is Chapter 4 of the Rules Regulating The Florida Bar. The new Florida rules, designed after the American Bar Association (ABA) Model Rules of Professional Conduct yet stricter in numerous examples, give refreshed moral norms to lawyer conduct and the structure for controlling behavior. Lawyers who disregard the guidelines are dependent upon disciplinary procedures carried by the Bar with punishments forced by the Supreme Court of Florida. Favorable circumstances of the new principles include: Greater clearness, along these lines advancing more noteworthy comprehension of expert guidelines; improving straightforward entry for the normal professional and offering a progressively unmistakable structure for disciplinary techniques. Direction in numerous issues not tended to in the Code of Professional Responsibility. New Rules of Discipline (Chapter 3, Rules Regulating The Florida Bar), which took impact simultaneously as the Rules of Professional Conduct and corrected further March 16, 1990, permit the Bar to freely recognize grumblings against lawyers after the Bar has officially recorded a protest against a lawyer with the Supreme Court of Florida (cases got before March 17, 1990) and after complaint board of trustees or staff demeanor, including excusals (cases after March 16, 1990). The Bar will have the option to recognize that reality by refering to the lawyers name, the nature of the omplaint and the status of the case. Beforehand, before January 1, 1987, such data was generally discharged simply after the Supreme Court gave the control request regularly months or years after the conventional protest was documented. The new control manages additionally increment the disbarment time frame from three to five years (before a lawyer can apply for readmission). The guidelines of order were cor rected regarding annulment of the stifler rule, generous decrease in the measure of secrecy connected to disciplinary cases and to take into consideration increasingly smoothed out complaint board of trustees strategies. : On February 9, 2000, The Florida Bar requested of the Supreme Court to alter the Rules Regulating The Florida Bar. A few adjustments were acknowledged and are presently reflected in the Rules Regulating The Florida Bar. The latest alterations to Chapters 3 and 4 of the Rules Regulating The Florida Bar were established by the Florida Supreme Court in Amendments to Rules Regulating The Florida Bar, 29 Fla. L. Week by week S265 (No. SC03-705, 5/20/2004). Back to Top [pic] II. Bar Position A. American Bar Association Position The Model Rules reflect long stretches of exertion by a commission of the ABA. The Florida Bar was dynamic in the improvement of the Model Rules and a large number of its suggestions were remembered for the last Model Rules report. B. The Florida Bar Position Floridas Rules of Professional Conduct depend on the Model Rules with changes explicit to the state. The principles were submitted to the Supreme Court and were endorsed with minor changes in July 1986. The Rules of Professional Conduct mirror the situation of The Florida Bar on issues of lawyer lead and control. Back to Top [pic] III. Foundation A. Authentic The primary national gauges for legal counselors were the Canons of Professional Ethics, embraced by the ABA in 1908, and along these lines by most state legal advisor administrative bodies. In 1969 the ABA supplanted the Canons with the Code of Professional Responsibility, which was thus, received in fluctuating structures by all state bar affiliations. In 1977, the ABA initiative decided the code required improving and delegated the Commission on the Evaluation of Professional Standards, ordinarily known as the Kutak Commission. Following six years of remark, banter and redrafting, the Kutak Commission proposed its last work item, the Model Rules of Professional Conduct, which the ABA embraced in 1983 to supplant the Code of Professional Responsibility. The Florida Bar delegated an exceptional report board of trustees of attorneys and law educators from all through the state to consider the proposed rules and make proposals with respect to their selection in Florida. After intensive audit, discussion and formal reviews, the board of trustees suggested that the principles be embraced with certain adjustments. The Florida Bars Board of Governors agreed, and after long thought, the Florida Supreme Court entered its request receiving the principles, viable 12:01 a. m. on January 1, 1987, instead of the Code of Professional Responsibility. B. Arrangement The Code of Professional Responsibility was in a three-section design: the nine Canons, the Ethical Considerations and the Disciplinary guidelines. The reason for existing was to express the general proverbs in the Canons, and optimistic destinations in the ECs, and the enforceable principles in the DRs. The Kutak Commission found that the Code of Professional Responsibility, including the differing gauges found in the Canons, ECs and the DRs, were awkward and hard to apply in the functional goals of moral difficulties emerging in the ordinary act of law. With the expanding size of the Bar and the need to give increasingly powerful moral principles to legal counselors, the Kutak Commission accepted that the repetition configuration would make the guidelines a progressively helpful instrument in the act of law and in disciplinary systems. The guidelines likewise give considerable direction in numerous zones not tended to by the code. The guidelines surrender the three-section organization of the Code. The principles show up in a rehashing position, with an aggregate of 50 dark letter runs in eight sections (Client-Lawyer Relationship, Counselor, Advocate, Transactions With Persons Other Than Clients, Law Firms and Associations, Public Service, Information About Legal Services, and Maintaining the Integrity of the Profession). Going with each standard is a remark clarifying the motivation behind the standard and giving a manual for translation. The remarks clarify and decipher the principles, however their announcements of fitting behavior, to the degree that they go past the real orders of the standards themselves, are not obligatory or official. Back to Top [pic] C. Meaningful Some of the regions where The Florida Bar has embraced stricter gauges than the ABAs Model Rules include: Client Confidentiality. Florida rules require a legal advisor to uncover data to keep a customer from perpetrating a wrongdoing or to forestall a passing or considerable real mischief to another. The ABA Model essentially leaves disclosure of that data to the tact of the legal advisor. Possibility Fees. Florida decides necessitate that every such game plan in close to home injury and property harm cases be recorded as a hard copy and shutting explanations dispensing such charges additionally be recorded as a hard copy. Rate tops are additionally set up for individual injury and unfair demise cases. The ABA has no such top necessities. Expense pa rting is additionally tended to in the standards. A customer must endorse most expense parts before lawyers can share a charge and the end proclamation must reflect who got what expenses. Generally, the meaningful substance of the guidelines is predictable with the Code of Professional Responsibility that they supplant. A few instances of where the principles change from the code, or address matters not found in the Code include: The guidelines are predictable with the ongoing proclamations of the U. S. Incomparable Court on promoting and basically license any type of publicizing that isn't bogus or deluding. Attorneys are permitted in specific circumstances (counting the consequence of calamities) to request customers through post office based mail promoting. Legal advisors are required to report moral infringement by different lawyers that bring up a generous issue with respect to the attorneys genuineness, reliability or wellness as a legal counselor. Already, revealing infringement by different legal advisors was optional. The principles grant disciplinary activity against a legal counselor who is aware of genuine wrongdoing by another legal advisor yet neglects to report it. Lawyers have a comparable obligation comparative with legal unfortunate behavior. Lawyers are illegal from utilizing implies that have no considerable reason other than to humiliate, deferral or weight a third individual and prohibited from making a pointless disclosure demand in a pretrial system. Legal counselors are required to put forth sensible attempts to assist prosecution steady with the interests of the customer. Sending charges (some of the time called referral expenses) are explicitly allowed not just when they are separated in relation to administrations rendered, yet additionally where each taking an interest attorney only accepted joint accountability with the customer consenting recorded as a hard copy. The principles explicitly grant legal co unselors to propel costs dependent upon result of prosecution. The guidelines explicitly grant an individual from a legal counselors firm to be an observer in a preliminary in which the attorney is preliminary insight. Conditions in which a legal counselor may acknowledge business unfriendly to a previous customer are explicitly tended to just because. Contemplations in enterprise portrayal, including clashes that may emerge inside the association, are dealt with legitimately just because. The guideline of classification among legal counselors and customers is extended from the codes ideas of confidences and privileged insights to any data identifying with portrayal. The standards explicitly grant an attorney to go about as a go between at least two customers in specific conditions. The principles address the different obligations of senior and subordinate legal counselors in law offices, and the duties regarding lawful aides, just because. Just because, legal counselors are permitt ed to take an interest in referral ser

Rasin in the sun two influence

Rasin in the sun two impact Two Influences of the Day Through the play Raisin in the Sun, Beneatha Younger is presented to two men who she the two has an enthusiasm for. This being Joseph Asagai and George Murchison. The two men have some comparable qualities, yet in addition contrasts which make their activities stand apart from each other.To start, the two men are thoughtful on a basic level. They mean well, yet goabout it in an unexpected way. Asagai likes to discuss his past and get more associated with most things more than George. As he appears to need to get serious marginally more. They are about a similar age and appear in any event by what we see of them in the play to be accomplished. Asagai is the more customary of the two, which most likely discloses why he is by all accounts increasingly exposed back and. His consideration for Beneatha can be appeared by his customary yet emblematic endowment of his families Nigerian robes.English: Claudia McNeil in A Raisin in the Sun - t...

Research Paper About Nursing In The United States - 1650 Words

Research Paper About Nursing In The United States (Research Paper Sample) Content: Nursing in the United StatesStudents NameInstitution affiliationNursing in the United StatesIntroductionPatients in different settings have the right to access quality medical services. They also deserve service delivery that is based on their different needs, as opposed to what is desirable and convenient to health professionals (Buerhaus, Staiger, Auerbach, 2012). This goal may only be achieved if there exists transformed and modernized health care systems and processes. To achieve a transformed system of health will require a robust change of the roles of different health care providers, including nurses. Various initiatives and programs have already been established to focus on a number of improvements such as access, quality, and value among others which are yet to be devised (Sculz Johnson, 2013). Nurses bear the opportunity to play a key role in transforming the health system with a higher quality of services that would be blended with easy accessibility and value-driven platforms for patients.Nursing is currently one of the fastest developing occupations in the United States. Even though this is true, there is an increased number of the aged, people living with chronic diseases, and yet limited admissions to nursing school, and an aging nursing workforce. All these have led to demand outpacing supply, and therefore there rises the importance to educate nurses on how their profession is expected to change and grow (Keeling, Hehman, Kirchgessner, 2016). One of the most important issues is to develop a clinical carrier ladder. This organized carrier ladder offers direction for development in the clinical carrier, progression and profession. Nurses should be in a position to take up roles with higher complexity and scope, especially with the daily advancement in medical technology.Additionally, nursing is expected to grow and change through the widening of the professional scope to not only attend to patients in hospitals, but also cover communities. With the increased number of patients in hospital facilities, there is need for the development of community based healthcare (Buerhaus, Staiger, Auerbach, 2012). This might be workable especially in consideration of the elderly population of individuals who have chronic diseases and need regular medical interventions. Their conditions might be managed and monitored from home, rather than them making visits to the hospital facilities (Sculz Johnson, 2013).The continuity of smooth service provision can only be achieved if the government and different stakeholders manage to fill the vacancies left by retiring nurses. The nursing education system has failed to keep up with growing number of graduates who are willing to join the nursing career. This has led to a huge number of aspiring nurses being denied a chance to practice (Keeling, Hehman, Kirchgessner, 2016). There have been a number of reasons affiliated to this menace, which include limited budgets, faculty insuff iciency, and classroom space among other huddles. In many instances, the hindrances to joining practice is not usually identified in nursing school, but rather in the form of training that comes afterward (Lundy et al., 2016). In places like Philadelphia, there are many nurse graduates, a majority of hospitals shun giving these new nurses a chance to practice (Sculz Johnson, 2013). For there to be an increase in the number of trained nurses, the profession ought to nurture a culture where registered nurses become educators to the upcoming nurses. Moreover, organizations such as Accountable Care Organization should establish ambitions for transformational partnerships, which should grow into Accountable Care Systems (Sculz Johnson, 2013). This may be accomplished through the collaboration of different healthcare providers in meeting the needs of a particular population (Buerhaus, Staiger, Auerbach, 2012). The providers ought to work with a budget that would be allocated to them b y a commissioner to meet a wide range of needs in their focal population. The organization ought to work under a contract that specifies the objectives, and outcomes that should be met within the stipulated budget in a span of ten years. The local populations well-being is improved by a population health system, which blends with care. Nurses Responses The identified nurses had different views on the anticipated change to health care delivery, new roles and change in the work setting. However, healthcare delivery and change of the work environment stood out in their observations. The nurses noted that nurse leaders should tirelessly create a safe environment in all settings, and to all nurses belonging to different professional capacities (Keeling, Hehman, Kirchgessner, 2016). According to them, this approach boosts morale, and at the same time increases the chances of success in either hospital, or community based care. These nurses also claimed that integrity among nurse leader s was pre-requisite in extending commendations and appreciation to the efforts of the individual nurses. Apparently, there is a contrast between the three nurses responses and the findings of the research. However, both approaches towards the subject matter are informative, hence giving the reader a widened perspective of the subject matter. On the issue of new work settings, the nurses appeared to commend community health care. They asserted that this approach offers professionals a chance to interact with their patient, and thus foster maximized care. Attending to patients at the comfort of their homes might give professionals vital details about the patients lifestyle and habits that could be major contributing factors to their chronic illnesses (Buerhaus, Staiger, Auerbach, 2012). Additionally, they asserted that this new approach could foster new experiences that could assist professionals to better handle their patients. Apparently, the issues of focus are of direct impact t o the profession of nursing, and they signify the nature of changes that could be anticipated in the nursing profession. Work setting shifts are also observed in long term facilities such as nursing homes (Sculz Johnson, 2013). They could also be observed among expectant mothers who prefer nurses to be their healthcare providers during their pregnancy and childbirth. Clearly, these trends predict, and signify flexibility in the work setting for the nursing profession. On the issue of nursing education, these nurses advocated for registered nurses to be educators to new graduates. Through the nurse-educator approach, the concerns of workforce shortage in healthcare facilities would be resolved (Lundy Janes, 2016). According to the three nurses, the government ought to increase the number of training facilities for nurses. Such an approach would maximize on the number of individuals who wish to ultimately join the nursing practice (Sculz Johnson, 2013). However, these nurses added that educational training would not be enough, since the trainees would also require internship opportunities. According to these nurses, solid internships would equip the trainees with the experience that would be paramount in a vast range of healthcare provision platforms (Chambliss, 2014). Empowering nurses not only benefits the healthcare facilities they are working in, but also the vast number of Americans who seek nursing services in primary healthcare, basic education on health, and counseling. Apparently, the research tackled real issues that are associated with the nursing profession, as it gave a highlight on the educational needs of the profession. Medical homes also had a share on the response received from the nurses especially on the patient centered medical homes which were brought about by economic constraints imposed upon healthcare currently. This new health care models (patient centered medical homes) calls upon all nurses under different categories to tirelessly push for its implementation. The model brought about various benefits which was improving the quality of care and service provision, cost saving a culture change consideration. Nurses being the first contact person patients contact in a chronic, preventive or acute situation play a major role in implementation of the model. Nurses should be up to date on new developments on health care and service delivery, research and understand what the model en...

Essay on Cultural Speech Outline Australia - 1224 Words

Cultural Speech Outline: Australia Purpose: At the end of our speech, the audience will know about Australia Introduction: Grabber: Gday Mates! Preview: Today we are going to talk about Australia’s wildlife, sports, celebrities, cuisine, history, and attractions. Body: I. Australia has a number of different mammals but does not have any large predatory animals. A. Mammals are warm blooded animals that give live birth. B. Their biggest carnivorous animal is called the dingo, or wild dog. 1. They are found all over Australia except for Tasmania. Transition: moving on to Marsupials II. Australia has over 150 species of Marsupials. A. Marsupials are animals that carry their newborns in special pouches in their†¦show more content†¦Australian Celebrities A. Actors and Actresses B. Models C. Singers Transition: Now that you know some of the Australian celebrities, lets talk about the history of Australia I. The beginning A. Aboriginal Australians are believed to have first arrived on the Australian mainland by boat from Maritime Southeast Asia between 40,000 and 60,000 years ago. The artistic, musical and spiritual traditions they established are among the longest surviving such traditions in human history B. The first known landing in Australia by Europeans was by Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon in 1606. Other Dutch navigators explored the western and southern coasts in the 17th century, and dubbed the continent New Holland. C. In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook charted the East Coast of Australia for Britain and returned with accounts favoring colonization at Botany Bay in, New South Wales. Or what we call today Sidney. II. The British invasion. A. A First Fleet of British ships arrived at Botany Bay in January 1788, to establish a penal colony. In the century that followed, the British established other colonies on the continent, and European explorers ventured into its interior. B. 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Plutarch s Life Of The Heroes - 2289 Words

Plutarch was a son of the philosopher named Aristobulus. He was born in 46 AD in Chaeronea, Boeotia; and he died in 120 AD. Plutarch was also known as a historian, essayist and biographer who had left a huge literary heritage for humanity. By traveling abroad to other countries such as Egypt, Greece†¦, Plutarch assembled lots of information about the heroes of the Roman and Greece mythology. After that, he used that information to write about lives of heroes. He gathered all fascinating biographies in his massive books: â€Å"Plutarch’ Greek Lives†, â€Å"Plutarch’ Roman Lives† and â€Å"The Parallel Lives of Plutarch†. Those books bring a reputation to Plutarch and he became a famous biographer at that time. In his books, he wrote the lives of the heroes in order of time to show his respects to those people of both countries. The short biographies in his books are about childhood, achievements and deaths of the heroes. 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International Commercial Arbitration

Question: Discuss about the International Commercial Arbitration. Answer: Introduction: Arbitration can be defined as an ADR process whereby the related parties refer the problem to the third party that has an independent existence. The determination is made by the arbitrator. Arbitration is vital when the matter is technical in the scenario and the parties engaged in a dispute hunts for confidentiality and transparency. Arbitration can be selected on a mutual basis or as per the discretion of the court. Moreover, it can be defined as a method whereby the dispute is registered by an agreement between the parties to a single or more arbitrators and a binding decision is expected on the dispute. Arbitration carries the advantage that the parties vouch for a resolution instead of knocking the court gate. The main features of Arbitration are as follows: Consensual in nature Arbitration can happen when both the parties to the agreement have agreed upon. There are ample scenarios when the future dispute arising in a contract is referred to arbitration and a clause is inserted. Through a submission agreement, a current dispute can be dealt under arbitration. It is different from meditation in the fact that a party cannot step back from arbitration. The arbitrator is selected by the parties to the contract and both have agreed to it. In the case of a single arbitrator, the parties select it. However, when it comes to the three-member tribunal, every party appoints an individual arbitrator further two people agree on the arbitrator that will preside. However, the center can prescribe potential arbitrator that have the expertise and high skills. Neutral No parties to the contract can have a home court advantage. The parties to the contract are able to select factors like law, language and the place of the arbitration. This helps them to have an advantage just like the home court. Confidentiality As per the rules of WIPO, it safeguards the confidentiality of the presence of arbitration and any disclosures provided during the process and even the award. In some scenario, the WIPO rules enable a party to limit the access to secrets of the trade or any other information that is confidential in nature. Decision is final and binding The decision of the arbitral tribunal is final and binding that indicates the parties to the contract need to adhere to it without any delay. The national court enforces the international award that allows them to be kept aside in certain circumstances. The process of arbitration is influenced by the autonomy of the party and hence the choice of action depends entirely on them. Hence, arbitration involves immense flexibility. The parties are in a strong position to select a slow or a fast arbitration. The main reason why arbitration is selected is due to speed, accuracy, and efficiency. When proper plans are into practice then arbitration can be a fast process as compared to litigation and especially when it comes to the process of international arbitration. The flexibility of procedure is termed as the major highlight of arbitration. References Born, Gary. International Commercial Arbitration. Frederick, MD: Wolters, 2014 Jane, Jenkins. International Construction Arbitration Law. Kluwer Law International, 2014 Kluwer, Wolters. International Commercial Arbitration. Austin: Walters, 2014 Manuel Indlekofer. International Arbitration and the Permanent Court of Arbitration, Kluwer Law International, 2015

The Life of Masaccio (Art History) Essay Example

The Life of Masaccio (Art History) Essay It was Masaccio, the youngest of all painters who were young before during and after him who, in his few youthful years, worked the miracle of awakening in painting, breathing life into it at last real and earthy, an urgency it had never had before. Libero de Liberi. Masaccio, originally named Tommaso Giovanni di Mone, was born in San Giovanni Valdarno, near Florence on December 21,1401 and died in Rome in 1428. He was thefirst great painter of the Italian Renaissance, whose innovations in the use of scientific perspective introduced the modern style in painting. Masaccio joined the Florentine painters guild in 1422.His remarkably individual style was unique and owed little to other painters, although Giotto influenced him along with the stronger influences of the architect Brunelleschi, and the sculptor Donatello, who were both his contemporaries in Florence. From Brunelleschi Masaccio acquired the knowledge of mathematical proportion that was necessary to his revival of the pri ncipals of scientific perspective which is evident in one of his most acclaimed frescoes The Trinity which is housed in the Santa Maria Novella in Florence. Masaccio painted The Trinity or The Holy Trinity as it is also known, around 1427 and it is the perfect example of how he mastered the art of mathematical proportion in relation to scientific perspective because of how the chamber stands behind the scene of Jesus being crucified. The chamber turns the background into a continuation of the real world because it looks so realistic. Masaccios use of scientific perspective is projected so accurately in terms of perspective principles[Hartt, F.Pg 206], that when it wasfirst done, Brunelleschi was held responsible for the actual painting which shows us what a powerful influence he had on Masaccio.Masaccios use of foreshortening on the rosettes on the ceiling, which were made to

Basic Assumptions of Economics

Basic Assumptions of Economics A basic assumption of economics begins with the combination of unlimited wants and limited resources. We can break this problem into two parts: Preferences: What we like and what we dislike.Resources: We all have limited resources. Even Warren Buffett and Bill Gates have limited resources. They have the same 24 hours in a day that we do, and neither is going to live forever. All of economics, including  microeconomics and macroeconomics, comes back to this basic assumption that we have limited resources to satisfy our preferences and unlimited wants. Rational Behavior In order to simply model how humans attempt to make this possible, we need a basic behavioral assumption. The assumption is that people attempt to do as well as possible for themselves- or, maximize outcomes- as defined by their preferences, given their resource constraints. In other words, people tend to make decisions based on their own best interests. Economists say that people who do this exhibit rational behavior. The benefit to the individual can have either monetary value or emotional value. This assumption does not necessarily mean that people make  perfect decisions. People may be limited by the amount of information they have (e.g., It seemed like a good idea at the time!). As well, rational behavior, in this context, says nothing about the quality or nature of peoples preferences (But I enjoy hitting myself on the head with a hammer!). Tradeoffs- You Get What You Give The struggle between preferences and constraints means that economists must, at their core, deal with the problem of tradeoffs. In order to get something, we must use up some of our resources. In other words, individuals must make choices about what is most valuable to them. For example, someone who gives up $20 to buy a new bestseller from Amazon.com is making a choice. The book is more valuable to  that person than the $20. The same choices are made with things that dont necessarily have monetary value. A person who gives up three hours of time to watch a professional baseball game on TV also is making a choice. The satisfaction of watching the game is more valuable than the time it took to watch it. The Big Picture These individual choices are only a small ingredient  of what we refer to as our economy. Statistically, a single choice made by a single person is the smallest of sample sizes, but when millions of people are making multiple choices every day about what they value, the cumulative effect of those decisions is what drives markets on national and even global scales. For example, go back to the single individual making a choice to spend three hours watching a baseball game on TV. The decision is not monetary on its surface; its based on the emotional satisfaction of watching the game. But consider if the local team being watched is having a winning season and that individual is one of many choosing to watch games on TV, thus driving up ratings. That kind of trend can make television advertising during those games more appealing for area businesses, which can generate more interest in those businesses, and it becomes easy to see how collective behaviors can start to have a significant impact. But it all starts with small decisions made by individuals about how best to satisfy unlimited wants with limited resources.

Differentiates Between Sex and Gender Term Paper

Differentiates Between Sex and Gender - Term Paper Example The researcher states that gender role stereotypes in modern society are more constraining for females, but in certain ways, they are also constraining for males. For example, women are expected to be nurturers, expressive about their feelings and readily show emotion, whereas men are expected to take charge, be strong and think logically. The researcher would argue that this role differentiates dates all the way back to early hunter/gatherer societies, when men had to go out to find animals to kill for food and clothing, leaving the women behind to look after the children and perform other domestic chores. Finally, while most people belong to either the male or female sex, transsexuals have the organs of both sexes. This, plus the fact that they may identify themselves as more male than female or vice versa, may cause them great anxiety and confusion in a society which expects everyone to adopt wither male or female gender roles. This article states that in the past 30 years gender roles have been less specialized. This has made it incumbent on men to perform at least some of the traditionally female domestic chores. The article also discusses an interesting research finding that same-sex couples tend to have better relationships with their gender-neutral roles than traditional opposite-sex couples with strongly differentiated male and female roles since they incorporate both perspectives and therefore can better understand their partners’ needs. This source describes an anecdote involving President Coolidge and is therefore called The Coolidge Effect. Space does not permit detailing the story, but the idea behind it is that men want more sex partners than women do. The article describes 2 theories behind this assertion. 1) men prefer sex with strange women and 2) this is sexist claptrap. While there is some truth to both allegations, I feel the second more accurately describes the current situation. The evidence for this is the swinging lifestyle. Men wanting sexual variety often will persuade their wives to join, but once in it is usually the women who embrace it more. When it comes to sex women are the physically stronger sex because they don’t have a refractory (or recovery) period before they can have intercourse again.

An Investigation of Unilever Performance Management Assignment

An Investigation of Unilever Performance Management - Assignment Example Performance management refers to the method in improving the work performance of workers to the fulfillment of the company’s goal and objectives (United States Department of Agriculture, 2013; Goodrich, 2013). Moreover, research methodology refers to the systematic procedure in solving a particular research problem (Goddard & Melville, 2001). In this study, the purpose of the study is to examine the effectiveness of the performance management of Singapore Unilever. This comprises numerous sections, namely, research design/report framework, overall research, how to conduct with the literature research, research approach, sampling, data access, methods of analysis, and research limitation. 3.1 Research Design/ Report Framework This study plans to investigate the implementation of the SMART system of performance management in Singapore Unilever. In order to accomplish this, the data collected are obtained from both primary and secondary data sources. Primary data are significant in obtaining raw evidence to investigate a particular study while secondary data are obtained from literary sources like journals and books (Sapsford & John, 2006, p.142; Nicholson & Bennett, 2008). In this study, the primary data are gathered from both qualitative and quantitative research methods. In order to numerically measure the performance management of the company, quantitative research method is used. ... Vartanian (2011) noted that this form of data is important to garner other insights from various authors on the given subject. In this study, literary sources, such as journals, books, newspapers, and government websites are used. 3.2 Overall Research The purpose of the research is to define the significance of implementing the SMART system of performance in the appraisal methods of employees’ work performance in Singapore Unilever. Its objectives include (1) the description of the SMART system of performance; (2) the implementation of the performance system in the company; and (3) the assessment on the results of the implementation of the performance system in the company. Apparently, literature review is also conducted in order to gain scholarly insights on the topic. In order to address the validity of theories reviewed, both quantitative and qualitative approaches are made in forms of surveys and focused group interviews, respectively. The survey was participated by employ ees while the focused group interview’s primary respondents are those employees in the managerial position. To select the respondents for the survey, simple random sampling is used while judgment sampling is used in selecting the participants for the focused group interview. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are used for data analysis. Furthermore, distance plays a major role in hindering the researchers to conduct a direct observation to the activities of the company. 3.3 How to Conduct with the Literature Research As defined, literature research is the review of other literary sources like journals and books, in order to obtain additional data that will be used as evidence for a research project (Timmins & McCabe, 2005, p.41). It is important to

Advertising- the seven sins of memory Essay Example for Free

Advertising- the seven sins of memory Essay INTRODUCTION As if effective marketing communication were not hard enough to achieve, even if we succeed in getting our message attended to and processed, and a positive intention formed, the very nature of memory may step in and upset everything. Memory distortion and plain old forgetting are unfortunate facts of life. The important question, however, is: can we do anything about it? As with most things, if we are to have any hope of dealing with memory problems and their impact upon advertising and other marketing communications, we must first understand what is going on. In this paper we will be looking at what Daniel Schacter (2001) has called the seven sins of memory: transcience, absent-mindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias and persistence. Most of what Schacter is dealing with involves declarative memory and not procedural memory, and as a result is highly dependent upon activity in the hippocampus. Although other brain structures are involved in mediating declarative memory, the hippocampus is critical, especially for tasks emphasising the representational as opposed to temporal properties of declarative memory. The hippocampus is always active in encoding new information for declarative memory. Nondeclarative emotional memory is also involved here, especially in the cases of bias and persistence, which means activity in the amygdala as well. There is compelling evidence that the amygdala is critical to emotional learning and memory (cf. Griffiths 1997). Imperfections in memory have obvious implications for the successful processing of advertising. Even if a positive intention is formed as a result of exposure to an advert, if a memory malfunction interferes with that intention, the advertising will be ineffective. The problems associated with these seven sins of memory, and what advertisers can do about it, are discussed below. THE SIN OF TRANSIENCE Forgetting that naturally occurs over time may be thought of as transcience. While the memory of what one did yesterday may be all but perfect, over time those memories tend to become more a generic description of what one expects to happen under those circumstances rather than what actually did happen. †¢Advertising implication: The sin of transience implies that what people recall from advertising is much more likely to reflect a generic description of what is expected about a brand rather than the specific benefits that are part of the message. This has clear implications for interpreting recall measures of advertising messages. But, more importantly, it also suggests that the specific content of marketing communication should be consistent with, or carefully integrated with, prior understandings of the brand. A recent advert for Reynolds Wrap illustrates this can be done with a headline Sticky Foods Wont Stic spelled out in cheese on a pan of lasagne, with a portion cut out of the corner cutting off the last letter of stick, revealing the aluminium foil, clean, beneath. Transcience increases with age. While older adults those over 50 years of age have the same ability to remember in the short term as younger people, over time, memory of specific detail deteriorates more rap idly. As a result, older adults tend to rely upon a general sense of knowing rather than specific recall. The problem of memory transience can be mediated by more elaborative encoding, essentially by stimulating the lower left frontal cortex. One popular way of trying to encourage more elaborate encoding is by using visual imagery mnemonics to facilitate memory. In fact, this idea goes back to the early Greeks. Unfortunately for marketing communication, not only does using visual mnemonics require a great deal of concentration and effort (and there is no easy way to encourage such effort), but for most people there is really very little evidence of general memory improvement using such techniques. †¢Advertising implication: However, one way to encourage more elaborative encoding to help reduce transcience is to relate information the target audience is interested in remembering with something they already know. In advertising, this could be encouraged with questions in the copy to stimulate elaboration: for example, in a recent advert for the Dodge Caravan with the headline What Idiot Coined the Phrase Stay at Home Mom? THE SIN OF ABSENT-MINDEDNESS When one fails to pay proper attention to something and as a result does not encode it properly, or when the information is actually in memory, but overlooked when needed to be retrieved, one experiences the sin of absent-mindedness. Absent-mindedness manifests itself both in failing to  remember past experiences as well as in failing to remember to do something in the future. Both, of course, can prove troublesome for marketing communication. Also, the fact that absentmindedness is more likely for routine experiences that do not in and of themselves require elaborative encoding (e.g. exposure to advertising) adds to the problem. Unfortunately, routine behaviour (which certainly includes such things as reading magazines and watching television) is associated with low levels of prefrontal cortex activity in the left inferior area, which makes it difficult to form vivid memories. Such automatic or superficial levels of encoding can also lead to something known as change blindness (Si mons Levin 1998), where people fail to detect changes over time, because of an inability to recall details. This has obvious implications for the introduction of new benefits over time in advertising campaigns, or for repositioning. Memories for past experiences may be classified as either recollections or familiarity. Recalling specific details from memory (e.g. remembering specific benefit claims from an advert) is defined as recollection. Familiarity is when one has a sense of simply being aware of something without recalling specific details (e.g. remembering seeing an advert, but not particular content). This difference is important, because when there is divided attention during exposure, there is a significant effect upon recollection, but little or no effect upon familiarity (cf. studies by Craik et al. 1996). †¢Advertising implication: Because one is more likely to pay partial attention rather than full attention to advertising, familiarity with advertising is more likely than recollection of specifics from the advertisement. This underscores the importance of maintaining a consistent look and feel over time (Percy et al. 2001), encouraging familiarity, and utilising imagery that will elicit a positive benefit (associated with the brand) even at low or even sub-cognitive levels of attention. Additionally, too much exposure, especially massed exposure, could lead to lower levels of specific recollection (as we understand from as long ago as Ebbinghaus 1885). Spaced exposures generally result in better memory, a finding demonstrated in Strongs simulations (1974) of various media schedules based upon Zielskes work, and more recently in fMRI studies conducted by Wagner et al. (1998). Remembering to do something in the future (e.g. buying an advertised brand the next time you are shopping) is described by psychologists as  prospective memory. Einstein and McDaniel (1990, 1997 with Shaw) have offered a useful way of looking at this idea of prospective memory, distinguishing between what they call event-based prospective memory, where we want to remember to do something at a specific event, and time-based prospective memory, when one wishes to remember to do something at a specific time in the future. An example of event-based prospective memory would be wanting to buy a new brand the next time you are at the store. An example of time-based prospective memory would be making sure you are home at 3p.m. to meet the delivery man. Why people experience prospective memory failure is that they are usually so preoccupied with other things in their lives that when the event occurs, or the time arrives when it is necessary to remember to do something, the correct associations in memory are not activated. †¢Advertising implication: Prospective memory failure may be minimised in advertising by using distinctive cues that are unlikely to be associated with other long-term memories (especially for competitive brands). It is important to establish links in memory with the appropriate category need in such a way that when a purchase or usage occasion occurs, it will trigger a memory of the intention to act. This is especially true for recognition-driven brand awareness, which means for most package goods products. In the store point-of-purchase material as well as packaging must be both sufficiently informative to trigger the stored memory of an intention to buy, and be distinctive enough to minimise confusion with other brand memories. Shoppers are almost always in a hurry and preoccupied with other things when they are in a store, and this may get in the way of attending to the appropriate prospective memory cue. This is just the sort of thing that goes on when a salesman creates a distraction, hoping you will forget all about your initial good intentions not to be influenced by his pitch, as we know from the literature on compliant behaviour (cf. Cialdini 2001). THE SIN OF BLOCKING We are all familiar with the sin of blocking, that all-too-familiar experience of recognising someone but not being able to remember their name. According to Schacter (2001), blocking is not the same thing as absent-mindedness or transience. In the case of blocking, the memory has been encoded and stored, unlike absent-mindedness. In fact, an appropriate  retrieval cue could be in place, but the association is just not made. Unlike transience, with blocking, the information is still in memory, but remains just out of reach when required. Because blocking generally occurs when trying to remember names, it potentially can be a problem for brand names. Blocking seems to originate in the left temporal pole, where there is a breakdown in the link made between the characteristics associated with something and the name by which it is known. The reason people often have trouble remembering someones name is that a persons name tends to be isolated in memory from any conceptual knowledge about that person and, as a result, difficult to retrieve. Most models of name retrieval hold that activation of phonological representations in memory occur only after activation of conceptual and visual representations. This is why it is easier to recall something about a person than to recall their name. It is also what can lead to remembering something about a product without being able to recall the brand name. Interestingly, names that are most likely to be blocked are familiar ones which have not recently been encountered (Burke et al. 1991. †¢Advertising implication: Brand names that are not well integrated or related to obvious associations with category need will be highly susceptible to blocking. If there are no logical and immediate links in memory between a brand name and the category need, there is the risk of occasional blocking. Arbitrary or more abstract brand names will be blocked more often than descriptive brand names, even when those names are equally familiar to people (cf. Brdant Valentine 1998). Brand names such as Vitalegs (a herbal gel that relieves tired legs) and Soft Scrub (a cleanser that enables you to clean without harsh scratching) illustrate good descriptive brand names that are less likely to be susceptible to blocking. To minimise blocking, it is necessary to suppress the retrieval of recently encountered information that is related to a recall cue so that the mind is not cluttered with irrelevancies that could interfere with the desired memory. †¢Advertising implication: When a brand possesses identical or similar benefits as the leading brand in its category, it will be that much harder to build an association for those benefits with the brand because of learned interference from advertising for the leading brand. This again suggests the need to have copy (and packaging as well as other marketing communication) unique to a brand in order to avoid multiple connections in  memory that could minimise or override the desired brand-related memory. Certain retrieval inhibitions that lead to blocking can be released if we encounter a sufficiently powerful cue (e.g. nondeclarative emotional memories) that helps us re-experience something in the same way in which it was initially experienced. Appropriate triggers in advertising or other marketing communication that elicit the correct emotional memories may help overcome retrieval inhibitions, and release positive memories for a brand. A wonderful advert for Nestls Toll House chocolate chips showing a mother with a pan of chocolate chip cookies fresh out of the oven with a little girl looking on in anticipation perfectly illustrates this point. THE SIN OF MISATTRIBUTION If one correctly remembers something learned, but attributes it to the wrong source, this is misattribution. Often referred to as unconscioustransference, it causes real problems with eyewitness identification. The problem stems from a strong sense of general familiarity, coupled with an absence of specific recollection. While the consequences of misattribution in advertising are obviously not as serious as they are with eyewitness identification, it can nevertheless cause marketers real problems. †¢Advertising implication: Avoiding misattribution requires more than simply retrieving appropriate benefits from memory. The benefit must be linked together in memory in such a way that you make the correct association of the brand with its benefit claim. This linking process is known as memory binding. All of the important brandbenefit associations in advertising must be bound together by the receiver into a unifying whole at the time of encoding. When advertising for different brands is visually or verbally similar, this memory binding is unlikely to occur, leading to memory conjunction error. Memory conjunction errors occur because people misattribute strong familiarity with similar (even if not identical) things from more than one source as coming from a single source; brand advertising in our case. Interestingly, a strong visualverbal congruence can help minimise misattribution (cf. Schacter et al. 1999). A recent series of adverts for Good Humor-Breyers uses the exact format and headline (Less fat, fewer calories, no guilt) for three brands: Popsicle, Breyers and Klondike. This would seem to almost encourage misattribution. THE SIN OF SUGGESTIBILITY Suggestibility in memory occurs because one tends to include information that has been learned from an outside source as something personally experienced. This information may come from any external source, including advertising or other marketing communication. While suggestibility is similar to the sin of misattribution, misattribution does not require suggestions from outside sources. But when the two combine, it is quite possible for us to develop memories of something which in fact never occurred. †¢Advertising implication: Interestingly, while suggestibility may be a sin of memory, in the world of marketing communication this sin may often become a blessing. For example, suggestive questions may produce memory distortions by creating source memory problems. As a result, advertising that utilises questions that remind people of a favourable brand association could occasion a memory for that positive experience, even if it never occurred, e.g.: Remember how easy it is to remove those nasty stains when you use our brand? Schacter has suggested that if you embellish a fake memory with vivid mental images it should make it look and feel like a true memory. This is based upon work done by Hyman and Pentland (1996) in successfully creating false childhood memories via suggestion, simply by asking subjects about things that never occurred. One of the important conclusions they drew from their work is that these false memories produce vivid visual images. †¢Advertising implication: The application to advertising is obvious. If a suggested favourable experience with a brand is reinforced with a strong visual image of such an experience, it should help seed a memory of a positive experience. In an extension of these ideas, we know that one of the best ways to elicit early childhood memories is to ask someone to visualise themselves as children. While there is no evidence that anyone can remember anything much earlier than about two years of age, because the areas of the brain needed for episodic memory are not fully mature until that age, with suggestive visualisation techniques one can create false memories for events going back almost to birth (cf. Spanos et al. 1999). The key here, as in all suggestibility, is expectancy. If one is instructed to expect something, and it seems plausible, it is possible to create rather strong false memories. †¢Advertising implication: It is very difficult to  suggest a false memory for something that runs counter to a recent or strong existing memory. If you dont like a brand, advertising is not likely to create a false memory that you do; nor should you try. But if a brand is one of a set of brands used by the receiver, it is certainly possible to suggest more positive experiences with that brand. And if it is a brand they have not used, if the advertising can relate it to a posit ive experience from childhood, it is quite possible to suggest positive memories for the benefit, and then link it to the brand. THE SIN OF BIAS The sin of bias reflects how current understandings, beliefs and feelings have the ability to distort how one interprets new experiences and the memory of them. Biases that are associated with memory of past experiences will greatly influence how one perceives and understands new information or situations. Schacter talks about five major types of bias: consistency, change, hindsight, egocentric and stereotypical biases. Gazzaniga (1998) has identified something in the left brain that he calls an interpreter that continuously draws upon peoples experiences and understanding of things in order to provide some stability to their psychological world. This would seem to be the neurological source of biases, and utilises such things as inferences, rationalisations and generalisations in relating the past with the present, enabling people to justify their present attitudes with past experiences and feelings. The left brain interpreter, however, is mediated by systems in the right brain that are more attuned to actual representations of what is going on in the world around us. Consistency and change bias Consistency bias reflects a tendency to behave (or believe) today in a fashion consistent with how one remembers similar previous experiences. When this happens, current experiences and feelings are filtered through and made to match memories of those past experiences and feelings. Because memories are not exact, people tend to infer their past beliefs, attitudes and feelings from what they are experiencing today. †¢Advertising implication: This suggests that for people who hold current positive attitudes toward a brand, advertising could imply they are of long standing. For brand switchers who include a particular brand in their purchase set, advertising  could imply a long standing preference for that brand: You know you have always liked this brand, why not buy more? Something similar occurs with change bias, where one remembers something being worse than it actually was, making what they feel now an improvement by comparison. Both consistency and change bias can occur beca use they help reduce cognitive dissonance, even when someone is not really aware of the source of the inconsistency they are trying to manage (Lieberman et al. 2000). Hindsight bias Hindsight bias is that familiar feeling that one has always known something would happen after becoming aware of the outcome. One is reconstructing the past to make it consistent with the present. The key here seems to be an activation of general knowledge. The new information is integrated with other general knowledge in semantic memory, and is not distinguished as such in making judgements. There is evidence that this selective recall is a function of the general knowledge that influences perception and comprehension, and a vulnerability to misattribution. †¢Advertising implication: Hindsight bias would seem to indicate that when exposed to advertising or other marketing communication one will recall benefit claims that are not actually made, but which would have been expected to be there because of the claims that actually were made. Work by Carli (1999) tends to support this idea. Recent adverts for Infusium 23 set up a beforeafter case, but leave out the before picture, wit h the headline You really think I would let them publish the before picture? This clever execution encourages hindsight bias as you imagine the before hair problem. Egocentric bias The self plays an important role in ones ongoing mental life, and is at the root of egocentric bias. When encoding new information by relating it to the self, memory for that information will be better than other types of encoding. This is because people are more likely to value their own understanding of things, among other reasons because the self-concept plays a key role in regulating mental activity. As Taylor (1989) and her colleagues have pointed out, individuals do not see themselves objectively. †¢Advertising implication: The implication is obvious: include personal references in advertising and other marketing communication. Moreover, given  our tendency to see ourselves in a positive light, it follows that memories related to ourselves will be seen in a self-enhancing light. This suggests that copy asking people to remember a situation in a positive light should encourage an egocentric memory bias, e.g.: remember when you . In the same way, egocentric bias can resul t from exaggerating the difficulty of past experiences: remember how hard it was to . This idea is well illustrated in a campaign for National Rails Senior Railcard, where a dated-looking picture of a young child is featured, with headlines like Remember what it was like to go somewhere for the first time and Remember how it felt just to let yourself go. THE SIN OF PERSISTENCE Research has shown that emotionally charged experiences are better remembered than less emotional occasions. The sin of persistence involves remembering things you wish you would forget, and it is strongly associated with ones emotional experiences. †¢Advertising implication: Emotionally-charged information automatically attracts attention; and even in the briefest exposure, the emotional significance of it will be retrieved from nondeclarative emotional memory, and evaluated as to how that information will be encoded. Understanding the emotional associations generated by specific advertising is critical. Because people are more likely to remember the central focus of emotionally arousing information rather than peripheral details, it is essential to tie the brand in marketing communication to the appropriate emotion. Otherwise, it will become peripheral to the information conveyed (a problem with a lot of highly entertaining advertising). There is evidence that persistence thri ves in negative emotional situations such as disappointment, sadness and regret. Ones memory of traumatic experiences is persistent, and while these unwanted memories may occur in any of the senses, visual memories are by far the most common. Research reported by Ochsner (2000) supports this idea. He found that when people recognise a positive visual image they tend to just say it is familiar to them. But when they recognise negative visual images, people relate detailed, specific memories of what they thought and felt when they were originally exposed to the picture. †¢Advertising implication: All of this underscores the importance of the visual images in advertising and other forms of marketing communication. Because persistence thrives in a negative emotional climate,  if advertising illustrates disappointment or problems dealing with a situation, which is resolved by using the brand, this should tap into any persistent memories of product dissatisfaction (always assuming such dissatisfaction). It also suggests that for appropriate product categories (especially those reflecting high-involvement informational decisions such as medical or other insurance, financial planning, and so forth) visual reminders of past problems which could be avoided with a brand should be an effective strategy. Such a strategy should also be equally effective in situations where there is strong psychological risk involved, e.g. reminding young people of a social disaster which would never occur if they used our brand. The root of much of this kind of activity is centred within the amygdala, the source of nondeclarative emotional memory. It is the amygdala that regulates memory storage, and can release hormones that can force us to remember an experience vividly (LeDoux 1996). And as we have already noted, this response by the amygdala is much more likely to occur for negative than positive experience. †¢Advertising implication: For appropriate product categories, it could make sense to create situations in advertising that suggest possible threats to the receivers wellbeing. This threat may then well intrude upon active memory when thinking about the category, with our brand linked to avoiding the trouble. This is well illustrated in a recent advert for Imitrex, an ethical drug for migraine, that uses the headline I cant let a migraine call the shots thats why I use Imitrex. SUMMARY Schacter has provided us with an extremely useful framework for looking at memory problems: his seven sins of memory. Each of these imperfections (in his words) has the potential for interfering with the successful processing of advertising and other marketing communication. Recent work in neurobiology, utilising the recent technology of fMRIs (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and PET scans (positron emission tomography), has shown us that our earlier understanding of memories as snapshots stored away in the mind ready to be recalled is not how the brain works. Memories for objects and experiences are decomposed into a number of different parts and those parts are stored in various areas of the brain, waiting to be reassembled and remembered. This underscores why memories are rarely  perfect, and why they can be potentially unreliable. As this discussion makes clear, effective communication faces a number of formidable hurdles in memory. However, forewarned with this knowledg e, we are in a better position to avoid or at least minimise some of these potential problems. To help advertising communication overcome the seven sins of memory, advertisers should: †¢ensure the message is carefully integrated with how a brand is understood (transcience) †¢encourage elaboration of points the target is interested in remembering (transcience) †¢use personal references, especially to positive memories (bias) †¢imply current positive brand attitudes are of long standing (bias) †¢tie brands to appropriate emotions (blocking, persistence) †¢use distinctive cues not likely to be associated with other longterm memories (absent-mindedness) †¢create a unique brandbenefit claim link (misattribution) †¢establish links in memory to appropriate category need (absentmindedness) †¢make sure those links are well integrated with obvious associations to the category need (blocking) †¢ensure a consistent look and feel over time to encourage familiarity (absent-mindedness) †¢use strong visual images to create or reinforce positive memories associated with the brand (suggestibility) †¢utilise reminders of past problems that could be avoided or solved by the brand (persistence). If these points are considered in the creation of advertising executions, one is well on the way to avoiding, or at least minimising, problems inherent in how memory works. REFERENCES Brdant, S. Valentine, T. (1998) Descriptiveness and proper name retrieval. Memory, 6, pp. 199206. Burke, A., Mackay, D.G., Worthley, J.S. E. Wade (1991) On the tip of the tongue: what causes word failure in young and older adults? Journal of Memory and Language, 30, pp. 237246. Carli, I.L.L. (1999) Cognitive reconstruction, hindsight, and reactions to victims and perpetrators. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, pp. 966979. Cialdini, R. (2001) Influence: Science and Practice (4th edn). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Craik, F.I.M., Govoni, R., Naveh-Benjamin, M. Anderson, N.D. (1996) The effects of divided attention on encoding and retrieval processes in human memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125, pp. 159180. Ebbinghaus, H. (1885/1964) Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. New York: Dover. Einstein, G.O. McDaniel, M.A. (1990) Normal  aging and prospective memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, pp. 7 17726. Einstein, G.O., McDaniel, M.A. Shaw, P. (1997) Aging and prospective memory: the influence of increased task demands at encoding and retrieval. Psychology and Aging, 12, pp. 479488. Gazzaniga, M.S. (1998) The split brain revisited. Scientific American, 279, pp. 5055. Griffiths, R.E. (1997) What Emotions Really Are. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Hyman, I.E. Jr. Pentland, J. (1996) The role of mental imagery in the creation of false childhood memories. Journal of Memory and Language, 35, pp. 101117. LeDoux, J.E. (1996) The Emotional Brain. New York: Simon and Schuster. Lieberman, M.D., Ochsner, K.N., Gilbert, D.T. Schacter, D.L. (2000) Do amnesiacs exhibit cognitive dissonance reduction? The role of explicit memory and attention in attitude change. Psychological Science. Ochsner, K.N. (2000) Are affective events richly recalled or simply familiar? The experience and process of recognizing feelings past. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, pp. 242261. Percy, L., Rossiter, J.R. Elliott R. (2001) Strategic Advertising Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Schacter, D.L. (2001) The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Schacter, D.L., Israel, L. Racine, C. (1999) Suppressing false recognition: the distinctiveness heuristic. Journal of Memory and Language, 40, pp. 124. Simons, D.J. Levin, D.T. (1998) Failure to detect changes to people during realworld interactions. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 4, pp. 501506. Spanos, N.P., Burgess, C.A., Burgess, M.F., Samuels, C. Blois, W.O. (1999) Creating false memories of infancy with hypnotic and non-hypnotic procedures. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13, pp. 201218. Strong, E.C. (1974) The use of field experiment al observations in estimating advertising recall. Journal of Marketing Research, 11, pp. 369378. Taylor, S.E. (1989) Positive Illusions. New York: Basic Books. Wagner, A.D., Schacter, D.L., Rolfe, M., Koutstaal, W., Maril, A., Dale, A.M., Rosen, B.R. Buckner, R.L. (1998) Building memories: remembering and forgetting of verbal experiences as predicted by brain activity. Science, 281, pp. 11881191.

The Heart Of Darkness :: Essays Papers

The Heart Of Darkness The novel, Heart of Darkness, by Joseph Conrad, is literally about Marlow’s journey into the Belgian Congo, but symbolically about the discovery of his heart and soul during his journey, only to find that it is consumed by darkness. He realizes that the man he admired and respected most, is really demonic and that he may be just like him. He is able to come to this realization however, before it takes the best of him. The main character of the story, Marlow, is a thirty-two year old English seaman who has been traveling all his life. All he really wants is to find some shred of goodness in the European domination of Africa. He finds his thoughts completely consumed by one man named Kurtz. Kurtz is a man in charge of the most successful ivory business in the Congo. He is the focus in the novel, in that he is the one whom the other characters react to. Marlow’s thoughts are so consumed by Kurtz, that he is built up to be much more of a man than he truly is. In turn, Marlow is setting himself up for a let down. He says at one point, â€Å"I seemed to see Kurtz for the first time...the lone white man turning his back suddenly on the headquarters, on relief, on thoughts of home...towards his empty and desolate station†(P.32). When Marlow reaches Kurtz’s station, he begins to become disillusioned. He begins to hear about, and even see, the acts that Kurtz is committing, and becomes afraid of him. He sees in Kurtz, what he could become, and wants nothing to do with it. He does not want people to know he has any type of relationship with him, and says in response to the Russian, â€Å"I suppose that it had not occurred to him that Mr. Kurtz was no idol of mine.† (P.59). It is at this point that he begins to discover the darkness in his heart. Towards the end of the story, right before Kurtz dies, Marlow looks at Kurtz, and says â€Å"I saw on that ivory face the expression of somber pride, of ruthless power, of craven terror-of an intense and hopeless despair.† (P.118), and then Kurtz screams, â€Å"The horror, the horror.† (P.118) and he dies. He is referring to what he sees inside himself. This is just what Marlow was afraid he was becoming, he looked deep inside himself, and saw Kurtz.

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of DSM-IV TR Essay

DSM-IV TR, which stands for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edition), Text Revision was published by the American Psychiatric Association in 2000 and serves as a guide book for many health professionals to diagnose a patient with a mental disorder. It also helps health professionals to determine what types of treatment could be carried out to help the patient. The latest DSM is widely used, especially in the USA and many European countries.1However, it may not be completely followed by health professionals as they know that there are some weaknesses of the latest version of DSM as well. This essay will discuss the strengths and the weaknesses of the latest DSM and new changes for the DSM-V, which is expected to be published in May, 2013. DSM’s strength would be that it standardizes psychiatric diagnostic categories and criteria2, making the diagnosis of a mental disorder relatively easier than it was in the past. It allows health professionals to diagnose a patient, use the DSM to give them possibly the best treatment and overall, help them to cure the patients if the disorder is curable. DSM also has statistical data such as the prevalence of a certain disease in different genders, age of onset of diseases, etc. This allows health professionals to have a very wide range of knowledge which may be very useful for diagnosis and treatments. Besides, the DSM allows a common language for discussing diagnosis. It provides clear criteria for certain disorders so that every clinician would come up with the same diagnosis. This makes sure that a person is not diagnosed with different types of disorders in different clinics.Thus, treating patients more efficiently. Compared to the older versions of the DSM, the latest DSM also has more subtypes and specifiers which increases the diagnostic specificity. As I mentioned before, this increases the chance of diagnosing a patient with the same disorder in different clinics, assuring that they are diagnosed with the correct disorder as misdiagnosing them could possibly lead to serious damage. For some disorders, such as bipolar disorder, there are severity indicators such as mild, moderate and severe as well. This helps clinician to decide the course of the treatment according to the severity of their disorder. This is one of the strength of DSM as using the same treatment for different severity of the same disorder will not be very appropriate or efficient. However, this severity indicator is absent in some disorders such as manic episodes which is one of the weaknesses of DSM-IV TR. These were some of the strengths of DSM-IV TR. However, we know that another edition of DSM, DSM-V is expected to be published soon. This is obviously because there are some, or many weaknesses in the current DSM with which people are not satisfied. One of the major weakness of the current DSM and probably all the older editions is â€Å"Cultural Bias†. DSMs are mainly published by anglo-Americans and most of the behaviour that is considered as â€Å"normal† in the DSM is actually what is considered normal by the anglo-Americans. That is, some of the behaviour that is considered as abnormal in the DSM might be considered as normal in other cultures. For example, in some cultures, people tend to put a lot of emphasis and values filial piety and due to that, they would behave in a way that might not be considered as normal by the anglo-Americans. Would that classify them as abnormal? What exactly is normal anyways? According to the DSM, it it, I believe, what is considered as normal by the anglo-Americans. This is one of the weaknesses of the DSM which is well-known and I think it is because of this reason that DSM might not be as popular in countries where the culture is much different compared to countries like the USA and many European countries. Another weakness would be that DSM promotes a mechanical approach to mental disorder assessment. The clinicians may focus excessively on the signs and symptoms of mental disorders and they might not put much emphasis on a more in-depth understanding of the clients/patients problems. This problem have improved but it is still a problem caused by the DSM. DSM-IV TR also does not consider patients subjective experience of a disorder. That is, the  approach is not a dimensional approach as there is no first-person report but rather, observations are usually carried out which may neglect the more somatic and psychological processes that underlie the symptoms (Flanagan, Davidson & Strauss, 2007).3 Also, DSM causes most clinicians to be primarily concerned with the signs and symptoms of a disorder rather than the underlying cause by giving a list of certain criteria for diagnosis. Another weakness and debate about the DSM is that it is an unscientific system and it is the opinion of a few powerful psychiatrists. This has raised a lot of questions and have caused people to question the validity and reliability of the diagnostic categories as well. The validity and reliability were especially questioned after the Rosenhan experiment in the 1970s in which it was concluded that the sane could not be distinguished from the insane in psychiatric hospitals. Thus, even though the reliability and validity has improved now when compared to the 1970s, it is still a weakness which I believe could not be entirely fixed. However, validity problems of the diagnostic criteria especially arise when children or adolescents are involved. For example, the DSM-IV TR criteria for bipolar and manic disorder were originally developed for adults but right now, after a few changes, it is used for children as well. This increases the chance of misdiagnosing children with bipolar disorder. This information is supported by the fact that in the last 10 years, there has been a 40%4 increase in the number of children diagnosed with bipolar disorder. It is believed that there is not a sharp increase in the number of children with bipolar disorder but rather that the clinicians have been applying the diagnostic criteria (which were originally developed for adults) much more aggressively to children.5This is one of the weakness of DSM-IV TR that needs to be improved in the future as the effects could be devastating. One of the weakness, which I believe is not very significant but still is a problem and which is actually questioned by people is the definition of the mental disorder. This was also mentioned in the lectures. According to DSM-IV TR, a mental disorder is â€Å"associated with present distress or disability or significant increased risk of death, pain, disability and important loss of freedom†. This raises the question.. what about those  individuals who engage in activities that threatens their lives but they actually enjoy it? Such as mountain climbers, scuba divers, etc. Obviously they are no considered as abnormal but according to the definition of the DSM, they are considered as having a mental disorder. But we know that this is not correct. Thus, there is a problem with the definition of the word ‘mental disorder’. There are many other weaknesses as well such as with Personality Disorder diagnosis. It is believed that the description of symptoms is very broad. This means that patients diagnosed with the same disorder could actually have very different clinical presentations. For personality disorders, DSM uses a categorical approach6. However, it would be better to use a dimensional approach so that the different types/ degree of disorder could be distinguished and thus, could be given different and more efficient treatments. Another major weakness of the Axis II personality disorder is that there is a very high degree of overlapping or co-occurence with each other. This is also a problem for Axis I mental disorders.7 There are many other weaknesses with specific disorders of DSM especially about the diagnosis criteria and some other issues such as whether ‘Paraphilias’ should be included or not. Most of the major ones has been discussed above. Now, the new changes for DSM-V will be discussed. There are many new changes for the DSM-V. I will mainly mention those that are related to the weaknesses mentioned above. However, the new changes are discussed, the 4 principles behind the current process for revising DSM should be discussed. (Obtained from APA DSM-V Development’s official website) 1) Clinical Utility- the manual should be useful to those who diagnose and treat patients with mental illnesses 2) Recommendations should be guided by evidence 3) DSM-V should maintain continuity with previous editions whenever possible 4) No priori restraints should be placed on the level of change permitted  between DSM-IV and DSM-V From these 4 principles, it becomes clearer to us why DSM-IV is being revised and what changes should be expected. One of the changes is that in order to better assess the severity of symptoms, a dimensional assessment will be included. For example, other factors such as sleep quality, mood, etc will be considered regardless of the diagnosis. This will help to reduce the problem of â€Å"mechanical approach† as mentioned before. They will also help to address symptoms that are not included within the diagnostic criteria for specific illnesses (e.g. the problem of insomnia for patients diagnosed with Schizophrenia). DSM-V might also include something that could solve the problem of how to handle patients with co-occuring disorders, which is a major weakness of DSM-IV TR. Besides that, DSM-V will also have improved diagnostic criteria that are not precise in DSM-IV TR. Also, a few words would be changed as well in the new DSM. For example, the word â€Å"Mental Retardation† would be changed to â€Å"Intellectual Disability†.   Another change that would also be included would somehow, indirectly address the problem of cultural bias. In the new DSM, careful consideration would be given to the gender, race and ethnicity. This, I believe could help to lessen the severity of the cultural problem as mentioned before. Besides that, another ‘proposal’ is that, the criteria should be more stringent for the diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children. This also addresses one of the weakness mentioned earlier. This is a very important proposal as I believe it is not very humane to misdiagnose children with â€Å"Mental Disorders†. It could affect their life significantly. Another major changes is in the assessment and diagnosis of personality disorders. As mentioned before, a dimensional approach will be used rather than a categorical approach. This can help to determine the different severities of disorders and determine the ‘subtypes’ more accurately. Overall, it would make the diagnosis much more accurate and thus, more  efficient treatment could be used. These changes were mainly in response to the weaknesses mentioned above. Other changes include creating a new category called â€Å"Behavioural addiction†. This category is solely based on gambling. Internet addiction was also proposed. However, due to the lack of research in that field, it was rejected. This shows that they somehow followed principle 2 which emphasizes on the importance of evidence. Another category called the â€Å"Risk Syndromes† is also being considered. This will help clinicians identify earlier stage of mental disorders. The category of substance abuse and dependence will be removed and it would be replaced by a new category called â€Å"Addiction and Related Disorders†. This is done to help clinicians distinguish between similar types of disorders more easily and lower the chance of misdiagnosis (e.g. dependence is often confused with compulsive drug-seeking behaviour addiction). 8Another change is that the criteria for some eating disorde rs such as Anorexia Nervosa has been improved. Overall, the diagnostic criteria for many disorders has been improved and a dimensional approach is being used in DSM-V rather than the categorical approach used in the previous editions. All of these changes, together with many other minor ones, aim to improve the diagnosis process and thus, ensures that people are saved from misdiagnosis (which could lead to devastating effects) and so that they can receive better treatment which would increase their chances of being cured (if the disorder is curable). Bibliography Berman, J. (n.d.). Understanding the DSM-IV TR. Retrieved on 15th March, 2013, from http://www.ceuschool.com/librarydocs/SOC222.pdf Dombeck, M., Hoermann, S., Zupanick, E.C. (2011). Personality Disorders: Problems with current diagnostic system. MentalHelp. Retrieved on 14th March, 2013, from http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=569 Flanagan, E., Davidson, L. & Strauss, J. (2007). â€Å"Issues for DSM-V: Incorporating Patients’ Subjective Experiences.† Am. J. Psychiatry, 164(3), 391 – 392. Kleinplatz, P.J., Moser. C. (2005). DSM-IV-TR and the Paraphilias: An Argument for Removal. Retrieved on 14th March, 2013, from http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/MoserKleinplatz.htm Kronemyer, D. (2009). Phenomenological Psychology. Retrieved on 14th March, 2013, from http://phenomenologicalpsychology.com/2009/06/how-can-dsm-iv-be-improved-as-it-transitions-to-dsm-v/ American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC. Bipolar Disorder in Children. Wikipedia. Retrieved on 14th March, 2013, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder_in_children Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Wikipedia. Retrieved on 14th March, 2013, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders DSM-5. Wikipedia. Retrieved on 14th March, 13 from http://en.wikipe dia.org/wiki/DSM-5 DSM-5 development: Frequently Asked Questions. American Psychiatric Association.Retrieved on 14th March, 2013, from http://www.dsm5.org/pages/default.aspx Rosenhan Experiment. Wikipedia. Retrieved on 14th March, 2013, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenhan_experiment